Tag questions for opinions

Questions Tags

Question tags are short questions at the end of statements.

They are mainly used in speech when we want to:

• confirm that something is true or not, or
• to encourage a reply from the person we are speaking to.

Question tags are formed with the auxiliary or modal verb from the statement and the appropriate subject.

A positive statement is followed by a negative question tag.

• Jack is from Spain, isn't he?
• Mary can speak English, can't she?

A negative statement is followed by a positive question tag.

• They aren't funny, are they?
• He shouldn't say things like that, should he?

hen the verb in the main sentence is in the present simple we form the question tag with do / does.

• You play the guitar, don't you?
• Alison likes tennis, doesn't she?

If the verb is in the past simple we use did.

• They went to the cinema, didn't they?
• She studied in New Zealand, didn't she?

When the statement contains a word with a negative meaning, the question tag needs to be positive

• He hardly ever speaks, does he?
• They rarely eat in restaurants, do they?

Question Tags Summary Charts

Exercise 1: Grammar Exercise - Tag Questions
Exercise 2: Question Tags - Positive
Exercise 3: Question Tags

Relative clauses: defining and non-defining

Defining relative clauses

We use defining relative clauses to give essential information about someone or something – information that we need in order to understand what or who is being referred to. A defining relative clause usually comes immediately after the noun it describes.

We usually use a relative pronoun (e.g. who, that, which, whose and whom) to introduce a defining relative clause (In the examples, the relative clause is in bold, and the person or thing being referred to is underlined.):

They’re the people who want to buy our house.

Here are some cells which have been affected.

They should give the money to somebody who they think needs the treatment most.

[talking about an actress]

She’s now playing a woman whose son was killed in the First World War.

Spoken English:

In defining relative clauses we often use that instead of who, whom or which. This is very common in informal speaking:

They’re the people that want to buy our house.

Here are some cells that have been affected.

Subject or object

The relative pronoun can define the subject or the object of the verb:

They’re the people who/that bought our house. (The people bought our house.The people is the subject.)

They’re the people who/that she met at Jon’s party. (She met the people. The people is the object.)

Here are some cells which/that show abnormality. (Some cells show abnormality.Some cells is the subject.)

Here are some cells which/that the researcher has identified. (The researcher has identified some cells. Some cells is the object.)

No relative pronoun

We often leave out the relative pronoun when it is the object of the verb:

They’re the people she met at Jon’s party.

Here are some cells the researcher has identified.

See also:

• No relative pronoun

Punctuation

Warning:

In writing, we don’t use commas in defining relative clauses:

This is a man who takes his responsibilities seriously.

Not: This is a man, who takes his responsibilities seriously.

Non-defining relative clauses

We use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing. It is not necessary information. We don’t need it to understand who or what is being referred to.

We always use a relative pronoun (who, which, whose or whom) to introduce a non-defining relative clause (In the examples, the relative clause is in bold, and the person or thing being referred to is underlined.)

Clare, who I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.

Not: Clare, I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.

Doctors use the testing kit for regular screening for lung and stomach cancers,which account for 70% of cancers treated in the western world.

Alice, who has worked in Brussels and London ever since leaving Edinburgh, will be starting a teaching course in the autumn.

Warning:

We don’t use that to introduce a non-defining relative clause:

Allen, who scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to perform well.

Not: Allen, that scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to perform well.

See also:

• Relative pronouns

Punctuation

In writing, we use commas around non-defining relative clauses:

Etheridge, who is English-born with Irish parents, replaces Neil Francis, whose injury forced him to withdraw last week.

Spoken English:

In speaking, we often pause at the beginning and end of the clause:

Unlike American firms – which typically supply all three big American car makers – Japanese ones traditionally work exclusively with one maker.(formal)

And this woman – who I’d never met before – came up and spoke to me.(informal)

 

Defining or non-defining relative clauses?

Sometimes defining and non-defining relative clauses can look very similar but have different meanings.

Exercise 1:  relativeclauses - defining or non-defining?.
Exercise 2:  relativeclauses, defining and non-
Exercise 3: non Defining Relative Clauses

Past modals for judgements and suggestions

When we judge past actions we use:


should (n´t) have

We use should (n´t) have when we give an opinion or judgement about a past situation:

Jessica: I didn´t study for the exam.

Me: You should´ve studied. It was 50 points.

I´m judging Jessica because she didn´t study.

When suggesting alternative past actions we use:

could (n´t) have

would (n´t) have

We use would (n´t) have when we are imagining a hypothetical situation happening to us and doing something different:

Jessica: I forgave my boyfriend.

Me: I wouldn´t have forgiven him.

=

If I were Jessica, I wouldn’t have forgiven him.

We use could (nt´t) have when we are suggesting a hypothetical past possibility:

Jessica: My boyfriend was sad and I didn´t ask him why.

Me: You could have shown more empathy.

=

You had the chance to show empathy but you didn´t.

Exercise 1: modal verbs
Exercise 2: past modal verbs of deduction

Unit 13: That´s a possibility

Past Modals for Degree of Certainty

We can use past modals to  talk about how sure we are that something happened.

The general form for using past modals is:

modal + have + past participle

The charts below demonstrate how to correctly use past modals.

Degree   FACT

Example sentence      

He had a meeting with a client.       

The speaker is 100% sure. This is a fact.

Almost 100% Sure

Comment

He must have had a meeting with a client.     The speaker is making a logical conclusion and is almost sure (but not completely sure) that Mike had a meeting with a client. If Mike always goes to lunch with the speaker unless he has a meeting with a client, then it would be reasonable to say that he must have had a meeting with a client.

Possibility

He may have had a meeting with a client.

He might have had a meeting with a client.

He could have* had a meeting with a client.

The speaker is simply mentioning a possibility here. All three examples in the first column are ways of saying “It’s possible that 

Mike had a meeting with a client.”

Question:  Why didn’t Mike come to lunch with us?

Degree

Example sentence

Comment

FACT

He wasn’t in the office.

The speaker is sure that Mike was not available. This is a fact.

Impossible

He couldn’t have been in the office.

The speaker believes that it was impossible for Mike to have been in the office. Maybe the speaker spoke to Mike right before lunch and Mike said he was 100 miles away visiting a client.

Almost 100% Sure

He must not have been in the office. (not mustn’t have been)**

The speaker is making a logical conclusion. The speaker is 95% sure that Mike was not in the office.

Possibility

He may not have been in the office.

He might not have been in the office. (not mightn’t have been)

The speaker is simply mentioning a possibility here. All three examples in the first column are ways of saying “It’s possible that Mike was not in the office.”

Exercise 1: past modals practice

Exercise 2:  Modals Deduction Past

Giving reasons

See the video  about giving reasons

Using linking words to show reason

We use linking words to join ideas together when we're talking or writing. Sometimes we want to show that one thing happened because of another thing. We can use linking words like 'because' or 'since' or 'due to' to do this.

Words (or groups of words) that are followed by a clause

We can use these words at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. They are used in front of a clause (a clause has at least a subject and a verb that agrees with the subject). They go before the reason. If they are at the beginning of the sentence, we put a comma in the middle to separate the clauses.

Because

• We cancelled the picnic because it was raining.
• Because it was raining, we cancelled the picnic.

As

• We cancelled the picnic as it was raining.
• As it was raining, we cancelled the picnic.

Since

• We cancelled the picnic since it was raining.
• Since it was raining, we cancelled the picnic.

For

We can also use 'for' to mean 'because'. This is very literary and we don't really use it in spoken English. 'For' can only go in the middle of the two clauses. We often add a comma before it.

• We cancelled the picnic, for it was raining.

Words (or groups of words) that are followed by a noun

Because of + noun

• We cancelled the picnic because of the rain.
• Because of the rain, we cancelled the picnic.

Due to + noun*

• We cancelled the picnic due to the rain.
• Due to the rain, we cancelled the picnic.

Owing to + noun

• We cancelled the picnic owing to the rain.
• Owing to the rain, we cancelled the picnic.

Exercise 1: linking words reason 1

Exercise 2: because, Because of, Due to,and Since

Exercise 3: "Because of/Because"

Describing purpose

To, in order to, so as to, so that.

These structures express purpose and answer the question why something is done.


To                      We use 'to + verb' to say why we do something.

                   Examples: I'm going to Ireland to visit my family.
                   I went to the post office to buy some stamps.


In order to
So as to                  
We can also use 'in order to' or 'so as to'.
Examples: I'm going to Ireland in order to visit my family.


I went to the post office so as to buy some stamps.


Note                   
 1-  'in order to' and 'so as to' are more common before stative verbs like:
          be, have, know, appear, seem, understand, etc.
 Example: she left work early in order to be at home with the children.

  2-  Before a negative infinitive, we normally use 'so as' or 'in order'.
 Example: I am leaving now so as not to be late.
 (not: I am leaving now not to be late).

3-  Do not use 'for' before the infinitive of purpose.
     Example: I phoned Jenny to invite her to dinner.

    (not: I phoned Jenny for invite her to dinner).



So that                        
This structure is also frequently used to talk about purpose.
 It is normally followed by modal such as can or will.

 Example: I am saving money so that I can buy a new car.




Exercise 1:   choose the correct word.
Exercise 2:  expressing Purpose
Exercise 3: clause of purpose

Expressing regret and describing hypothetical situations

Could have, should have, would have

These past modal verbs are all used hypothetically, to talk about things that didn't really happen in the past.

Could have + past participle

1: Could have + past participle means that something was possible in the past, or you had the ability to do something in the past, but that you didn't do it. (See also modals of ability.)

• I could have stayed up late, but I decided to go to bed early.
• They could have won the race, but they didn't try hard enough.
• Julie could have bought the book, but she borrowed it from the library instead.
• He could have studied harder, but he was too lazy and that's why he failed the exam.

Couldn't have + past participle means that something wasn't possible in the past, even if you had wanted to do it.

• I couldn't have arrived any earlier. There was a terrible traffic jam (= it was impossible for me to have arrived any earlier).
• He couldn't have passed the exam, even if he had studied harder. It's a really, really difficult exam.

2: We use could have + past participle when we want to make a guess about something that happened in the past. (See also modals of probability.) In this case, we don't know if what we're saying is true or not true. We're just talking about our opinion of what maybe happened.

Why is John late?

• He could have got stuck in traffic.
• He could have forgotten that we were meeting today.
• He could have overslept.

We can also choose to use might have + past participle to mean the same thing:

• He might have got stuck in traffic.
• He might have forgotten that we were meeting today.
• He might have got stuck in traffic.

Should have + past participle

1: Should have + past participle can mean something that would have been a good idea, but that you didn't do it. It's like giving advice about the past when you say it to someone else, or regretting what you did or didn't do when you're talking about yourself.

Shouldn't have + past participle means that something wasn't a good idea, but you did it anyway.

• I should have studied harder! (= I didn't study very hard and so I failed the exam. I'm sorry about this now.)
• I should have gone to bed early (= I didn't go to bed early and now I'm tired).
• I shouldn't have eaten so much cake! (= I did eat a lot of cake and now I don't feel good.)
• You should have called me when you arrived (= you didn't call me and I was worried. I wish that you had called me).
• John should have left early, then he wouldn't have missed the plane (= but he didn't leave early and so he did miss the plane).

2: We can also use should have + past participle to talk about something that, if everything is normal and okay, we think has already happened. But we're not certain that everything is fine, so we use 'should have' and not the present perfect or past simple. It's often used with 'by now'.

• His plane should have arrived by now (= if everything is fine, the plane has arrived).
• John should have finished work by now (= if everything is normal, John has finished work).

We can also use this to talk about something that would have happened if everything was fine, but hasn't happened.

• Lucy should have arrived by now, but she hasn't.

Would have + past participle

1: Part of the third conditional.

• If I had had enough money, I would have bought a car (but I didn't have enough money, so I didn't buy a car).

2: Because 'would' (and will) can also be used to show if you want to do something or not (volition), we can also use would have + past participle to talk about something you wanted to do but didn't. This is very similar to the third conditional, but we don't need an 'if clause'.

• I would have gone to the party, but I was really busy.
  (= I wanted to go to the party, but I didn't because I was busy. If I hadn't been so busy, I would have gone to the party.)

• I would have called you, but I didn't know your number.
  (= I wanted to call you but I didn't know your number, so I didn't call you.)

• A: Nobody volunteered to help us with the fair
  B: I would have helped you. I didn't know you needed help.
  (= If I had known that you needed help, I would have helped you.)

Exercise 1:  Make the correct past modal form (use could have / would have / should have + past participle)

Exercise 2: 

Should have - Could have - Would have"

Time clauses

Time clauses in English Grammar

The time clauses begin with: when, whenever, while, as, since, after, before, until, as soon as, once. 

The time clause may come before or after the main clause with no change in meaning. If they refer to the future, the Simple Present is used in the time clause, andshall/will + infinitive/perfect infinitive or modal + infinitive, or imperative is used in the main clause.

When a complex clause contains a temporal clause, the time clause has future reference. The future is normally indicated by will/shall ('shall' with 'I/we') but not in the subordinate clause.

Exercise 1: before,after, as, as soon as
Exercise 2: which ofthe two conjunctions fits in the gap?

Referring to time in the past

For, Since, During or Ago

For is used when we talk about a period of time
example:
I have worked for 3 hours

 Since is used when we talk about the beginning of the action
example:
I have worked since 8 o'clock

 Ago is used as a date
example:
I worked 2 days ago

 During is used with a noun
 For is used with a period of time
Compare:

He called her during her break and talked to her for more than twenty minutes.




Exercise 1: past time expressions
Exercise 2: choose the right words
Exercise 3: prepositionsof time – during, over, for, by, until

Making Suggestions

4 ways to tell your friends what you would like to do in the next few days:

1) WHAT ABOUT/HOW ABOUT ... + Base form + -ING

What about going to the pictures tonight?

How about going to the pictures tonight?

2) WHY + Negative

Why don't we go to the swimming pool tomorrow?

3) IMPERATIVE: Let's + Base form

Let's go to the restaurant now!

4) COULD

We could visit Paris next week.

Exercise 1: click on words to build sentences
Exercise 2: choose the best option for each sentence