UNIT 10: THE ART OF COMPLAINING

Relative clauses and noun clauses

What is the difference between relative clauses and noun clauses?

Clauses (like words and phrases) can have different functions in sentences. Some clauses work like adverbs (modifying the action in the sentence), others work like adjectives (modifying a noun in the sentence), and others work like nouns (they are a subject or object in the sentence).

A relative clause is also called an adjective clause. It describes a noun. Here are a couple of examples:

This is the hat that my mom gave me.

[the clause in bold describes the noun hat}

My friend Klara, who is from Germany, speaks three languages.

[the clause in bold describes the noun Klara.]

A noun clause functions as a noun. This means it is the subject or object in a sentence. Here are some examples:

That he won the contest was really surprising.

[the clause in bold is the subject of the sentence]

I don’t know when she is going to leave.

[The clause in bold it the object of the verb know.]

There is more to understanding both relative clauses and noun clauses, but this is the general distinction between the two.

Exercise 1: Noun clause exercise

Exercise 2: Test on Relative Clauses

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SIMPLE AND COMPLEX INDIRECT QUESTIONS 

An indirect question is not a question at all. In a direct question, the auxiliary verb comes before the subject. However, in an indirect question, the auxiliary verb comes after the subject. What’s more, an indirect question ends with a full stop, not a question mark.

Read the following sentences.

Direct question: Where are you going?

Indirect question: I want to know where you are going. (NOT I want to know where are you going?)

Direct question: When do you intend to leave?

Indirect question: I want to know when you intend to leave. (NOT I want to know when do you intend to leave?)

Change the following direct questions into indirect questions using the introductory clauses given.

Exercise 1: Indirect questions 

Exercise 2: INDIRECT QUESTIONS

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Reading comprehension 

Exercise 1: Have we taken security too far?

UNIT 9: GENERALLY SPEAKING

Clauses and phrases showing contrast and exception

• Use WHILE, UNLIKE and IN CONTRAST TO to present contrasting information.

Examples:

WHILE many Americans drive every day, people in my country use public transportation.
UNLIKE the average American, people in my country don't use credit cards very often.
IN CONTRAST TO the average American, people in my country don't usually eat out.

• Use EXCEPT THAT and EXCEPT FOR to show an exception.

Examples:

I'm very similar to the average American EXCEPT (that) I don't have a car.
People in my country don't eat out EXCEPT (for) on special occassions.

Exercise 1: Contrasting Ideas

Exercise 2: Except and except for

Exercise 3: 

Choose the correct linking word or phrase.

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Past habit – used to/would/

When we talk about things that happened in the past but don’t happen anymore we can do it in different ways.

Used to

• We used to live in New York when I was a kid.
• There didn’t use to be a petrol station there. When was it built?

We can use ‘used to’ to talk about past states ….

• I used to go swimming every Thursday when I was at school.
• I used to smoke but I gave up a few years ago.

… or we can use ‘used to’ to talk about repeated past actions

Remember that ‘used to’ is only for past states/actions that don’t happen now – we can’t use it for things that still happen now. Also, ‘used to + infinitive’ should not be confused with ‘be/get used to + ‘ing’ form’ – this is covered in a separate section.

Would

• Every Saturday I would go on a long bike ride.
• My teachers would always say “Sit down and shut up!”

We can use ‘would’ to talk about repeated past actions.

Often either ‘would’ or ‘used to’ is possible. Both of these sentences are possible.

• Every Saturday, I would go on a long bike ride.
• Every Saturday I used to go on a long bike ride.

However, only ‘used to’ is possible when we talk about past states.

• We used to live in New York when I was a kid.
• We would live in New York when I was a kid.

Exercise 1: Used to / Would

Exercise 2:  Used To

Exercise 3: "Used To" or "Would"?

Reading Comprehension

Click here to practice an exercise about  Reading  Comprehension

Non- defining relative clauses as sentence modifiers

Use:

Use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about a noun in a sentence, or part of a sentence. The listener or reader does not need this information to understand the sentence.

Relative clauses can define the subject of the sentence:
Miranda, who used to go to the same university as me, is having a baby.

Or the object of a sentence:
We went to a lovely restaurant, where we both had steak.

Or the sentence as a whole.
She gave me some money, which was very nice of her.

Form:

• Always put the relative clause as close as possible to the noun that you are describing.
• Use who to give information about a person, whose to introduce a possession, and which to give information about a thing. Do not use that.
• Use where to give information about a place ONLY if you introduce another subject after where. Otherwise, use which.

We met at Bristol University, where we both studied Biology.
We met at Bristol University, which is in the west of England.

• Who, which, where and whose cannot be omitted in defining relative clauses.
• As non-defining relative clauses are not necessary to understanding the sentence, they are always placed within commas.

The man who lives next to me has five motorbikes.
In this sentence, ‘who lives to me’ is necessary. Without it, the sentence (‘The man has five motorbikes’) is meaningless because it is not clear which man is being talked about. Therefore, commas are NOT necessary.

Tom, who lives next to me, has five motorbikes. 
In this sentence, ‘who lives to me’ is not necessary. Without it, the sentence (‘Tom has five motorbikes’) still has meaning. ‘Who lives next to me’ adds more information, therefore, commas ARE necessary.

Common Mistakes
Some Students do not put the non defining relative clause close to the noun it describes.

The chemicals flow into rivers, which are toxic.  =>  The chemicals, which are toxic, flow into rivers.

Exercise 1: Non Defining Relative Clauses 

Exercise 2: Non-defining Relative Clauses as sentence modifiers 

Reduced relative clauses

A relative clause is a type of subordinate clause introduced by a relative pronoun.

• What is the name of that boy who just walked in?

Here the clause ‘who just walked in’ is an example of a relative clause. It modifies the noun boy. Relative clauses are also called adjective clauses.

Relative clauses are sometimes shortened.

How to reduce a relative clause?

A participle can often be used instead of a relative pronoun and full verb.

Read the sentence given below.

The girl who sits next to Peter is my neighbor’s daughter.

Now when we shorten the relative clause ‘who sits next to Peter’, we get:

The girl sitting next to Peter is my neighbor’s daughter.

Another example is given below.

Who is the girl who is sitting next to your brother?

Now when we reduce the relative clause, we get:

Who is the girl sitting next to your brother?

More examples are given below.

A girl who works at a pub has won a lottery.
A girl working at a pub has won a lottery.

The lady who lives next door throws numerous parties.
The lady living next door throws numerous parties.

Yesterday I read a book which was written by Hemingway.
Yesterday I read a book written by Hemingway.

Most people who were invited to the party didn’t turn up.
Most people invited to the party didn’t turn up.

Anyone who enters the garden without permission will be punished.
Anyone entering the garden without permission will be punished.

Reduced structures can also be used with the adjectives availableand possible.

Please book all the tickets available. (= Please book all the tickets that are available.)

Exercise 1:  (Reduced Relative Clauses)

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