UNIT 10: THE ART OF COMPLAINING

Relative clauses and noun clauses

What is the difference between relative clauses and noun clauses?

Clauses (like words and phrases) can have different functions in sentences. Some clauses work like adverbs (modifying the action in the sentence), others work like adjectives (modifying a noun in the sentence), and others work like nouns (they are a subject or object in the sentence).

A relative clause is also called an adjective clause. It describes a noun. Here are a couple of examples:

This is the hat that my mom gave me.

[the clause in bold describes the noun hat}

My friend Klara, who is from Germany, speaks three languages.

[the clause in bold describes the noun Klara.]

A noun clause functions as a noun. This means it is the subject or object in a sentence. Here are some examples:

That he won the contest was really surprising.

[the clause in bold is the subject of the sentence]

I don’t know when she is going to leave.

[The clause in bold it the object of the verb know.]

There is more to understanding both relative clauses and noun clauses, but this is the general distinction between the two.

Exercise 1: Noun clause exercise

Exercise 2: Test on Relative Clauses

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SIMPLE AND COMPLEX INDIRECT QUESTIONS 

An indirect question is not a question at all. In a direct question, the auxiliary verb comes before the subject. However, in an indirect question, the auxiliary verb comes after the subject. What’s more, an indirect question ends with a full stop, not a question mark.

Read the following sentences.

Direct question: Where are you going?

Indirect question: I want to know where you are going. (NOT I want to know where are you going?)

Direct question: When do you intend to leave?

Indirect question: I want to know when you intend to leave. (NOT I want to know when do you intend to leave?)

Change the following direct questions into indirect questions using the introductory clauses given.

Exercise 1: Indirect questions 

Exercise 2: INDIRECT QUESTIONS

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Reading comprehension 

Exercise 1: Have we taken security too far?

UNIT 9: GENERALLY SPEAKING

Clauses and phrases showing contrast and exception

• Use WHILE, UNLIKE and IN CONTRAST TO to present contrasting information.

Examples:

WHILE many Americans drive every day, people in my country use public transportation.
UNLIKE the average American, people in my country don't use credit cards very often.
IN CONTRAST TO the average American, people in my country don't usually eat out.

• Use EXCEPT THAT and EXCEPT FOR to show an exception.

Examples:

I'm very similar to the average American EXCEPT (that) I don't have a car.
People in my country don't eat out EXCEPT (for) on special occassions.

Exercise 1: Contrasting Ideas

Exercise 2: Except and except for

Exercise 3: 

Choose the correct linking word or phrase.

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Past habit – used to/would/

When we talk about things that happened in the past but don’t happen anymore we can do it in different ways.

Used to

• We used to live in New York when I was a kid.
• There didn’t use to be a petrol station there. When was it built?

We can use ‘used to’ to talk about past states ….

• I used to go swimming every Thursday when I was at school.
• I used to smoke but I gave up a few years ago.

… or we can use ‘used to’ to talk about repeated past actions

Remember that ‘used to’ is only for past states/actions that don’t happen now – we can’t use it for things that still happen now. Also, ‘used to + infinitive’ should not be confused with ‘be/get used to + ‘ing’ form’ – this is covered in a separate section.

Would

• Every Saturday I would go on a long bike ride.
• My teachers would always say “Sit down and shut up!”

We can use ‘would’ to talk about repeated past actions.

Often either ‘would’ or ‘used to’ is possible. Both of these sentences are possible.

• Every Saturday, I would go on a long bike ride.
• Every Saturday I used to go on a long bike ride.

However, only ‘used to’ is possible when we talk about past states.

• We used to live in New York when I was a kid.
• We would live in New York when I was a kid.

Exercise 1: Used to / Would

Exercise 2:  Used To

Exercise 3: "Used To" or "Would"?

Reading Comprehension

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Non- defining relative clauses as sentence modifiers

Use:

Use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about a noun in a sentence, or part of a sentence. The listener or reader does not need this information to understand the sentence.

Relative clauses can define the subject of the sentence:
Miranda, who used to go to the same university as me, is having a baby.

Or the object of a sentence:
We went to a lovely restaurant, where we both had steak.

Or the sentence as a whole.
She gave me some money, which was very nice of her.

Form:

• Always put the relative clause as close as possible to the noun that you are describing.
• Use who to give information about a person, whose to introduce a possession, and which to give information about a thing. Do not use that.
• Use where to give information about a place ONLY if you introduce another subject after where. Otherwise, use which.

We met at Bristol University, where we both studied Biology.
We met at Bristol University, which is in the west of England.

• Who, which, where and whose cannot be omitted in defining relative clauses.
• As non-defining relative clauses are not necessary to understanding the sentence, they are always placed within commas.

The man who lives next to me has five motorbikes.
In this sentence, ‘who lives to me’ is necessary. Without it, the sentence (‘The man has five motorbikes’) is meaningless because it is not clear which man is being talked about. Therefore, commas are NOT necessary.

Tom, who lives next to me, has five motorbikes. 
In this sentence, ‘who lives to me’ is not necessary. Without it, the sentence (‘Tom has five motorbikes’) still has meaning. ‘Who lives next to me’ adds more information, therefore, commas ARE necessary.

Common Mistakes
Some Students do not put the non defining relative clause close to the noun it describes.

The chemicals flow into rivers, which are toxic.  =>  The chemicals, which are toxic, flow into rivers.

Exercise 1: Non Defining Relative Clauses 

Exercise 2: Non-defining Relative Clauses as sentence modifiers 

Reduced relative clauses

A relative clause is a type of subordinate clause introduced by a relative pronoun.

• What is the name of that boy who just walked in?

Here the clause ‘who just walked in’ is an example of a relative clause. It modifies the noun boy. Relative clauses are also called adjective clauses.

Relative clauses are sometimes shortened.

How to reduce a relative clause?

A participle can often be used instead of a relative pronoun and full verb.

Read the sentence given below.

The girl who sits next to Peter is my neighbor’s daughter.

Now when we shorten the relative clause ‘who sits next to Peter’, we get:

The girl sitting next to Peter is my neighbor’s daughter.

Another example is given below.

Who is the girl who is sitting next to your brother?

Now when we reduce the relative clause, we get:

Who is the girl sitting next to your brother?

More examples are given below.

A girl who works at a pub has won a lottery.
A girl working at a pub has won a lottery.

The lady who lives next door throws numerous parties.
The lady living next door throws numerous parties.

Yesterday I read a book which was written by Hemingway.
Yesterday I read a book written by Hemingway.

Most people who were invited to the party didn’t turn up.
Most people invited to the party didn’t turn up.

Anyone who enters the garden without permission will be punished.
Anyone entering the garden without permission will be punished.

Reduced structures can also be used with the adjectives availableand possible.

Please book all the tickets available. (= Please book all the tickets that are available.)

Exercise 1:  (Reduced Relative Clauses)

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Why People Get Tattoos: Reading Comprehension

EXERCISE: Read the essay and then answer the questions.

The Effects of Stress: Reading Comprehension

Exercise:  Read the essay and then answer the questions.

READING COMPREHENSION

EXERCISE 1: 

Papua New Guinea Reconciliation

EXERCISE 2: 

Angkor Wat

TEACHERS EVALUATION INTERMEDIATE 2

SHIFT: AFTERNOON

____________

LISBET TAVARES

JUAN CARLOS SEVERINO

PEDRO TORRES

_______________

SHIFT: EVENING

____________________________

KARINA LOPEZ

MARIBEL NÚÑEZ

LISBET TAVARES

PEDRO TORRES

JUAN CARLOS SEVERINO

Modal verbs would and will for requests

Will is used in future structures.

1. Statement referring to the future – fact, timetable, etc.

– We’ll (= we will) have two extra lessons this afternoon.– It will be Tuesday tomorrow.– Their bus will leave at 7.30.

2. Instant decision

– The phone is ringing, I’ll go and answer it.
– What will you eat? I’ll have roast beef.

3. Request

– Will you tell your father that we expect him for dinner?

– Will you copy this file and print it for yourself?

4. Promise, offer, prediction

– I will always love you.

– Can’t you do your homework? Don’t worry, I’ll come and help you.

– Don’t trust her, she will always tell you lies.

5. Open condition

– We’ll go fishing at the weekend if the weather is good.

Would

1. Would is the past form of will

– Peter said he would finish the work the next day. (future in the past or reported speech)

– She said she would write me soon. (reported speech)

– He hoped I would come. 

2. Would refers to half-open or closed condition as an analogue of will.

– We would go fishing at the weekend if the weather was/were good. (half-open condition)

– We would have gone fishing at the weekend if the weather had been good. (closed condition)

3. When both will and would can be used, would is more polite.

– Would you do me a favour, please?

– I’m cold here, would you mind closing the window?

4. Other typical examples with would

– Would you like a sandwich? (offer)

– I’d (I would) like to have some cream with the cake. (request)

– I’d like to learn English very well. (wish, plan)

– It’s quite late, I’d rather have a cup of tea than coffee now. (preference)

– I would rather not go to that part of the town in the dark. (preference)

– When we were kids, we would hang around the playground every afternoon. (repeated action 

in the past)

Exercise 1:  

Quiz: Will or Would

Exercise 2: Verbs - will or would

So, Too, Neither, Either

The first chart shows the structure of So + Auxiliary + Subject.
This is used to show agreement (and how you or someone else is similar) with a positive statement that the first person said.

The second chart shows the structure of Neither + Auxiliary + Subject.
This is used to show agreement (and how you or someone else is similar) with a negative statement that the first person said.

SO

SO is used to show agreement with positive statements.

SO + Auxiliary/Be + Subject (pronoun)

The Auxiliary (or To Be/Have) needs to agree with the verb tense in the original statement.

It is similar to using TOO at the end of a sentence.

Person A	Person B
I am happy.	So am I.	= I am happy too.
I'm going to Brazil in the summer.	So am I.	= I am going to Brazil too.
You look nice today.	So do you.	= You look nice too.
Stephanie has a new boyfriend.	So does Mary.	= Mary has a new one too.
We went to the concert last night.	So did I.	= I went to the concert too.
I would love a coffee right now.	So would I.	= I would love a coffee too.
He will win a prize.	So will I.	= I will win one too.
They have finished their homework.	So have I.	= I have finished too.
I can speak two languages.	So can I.	= I can speak two too.
He should study more.	So should I.	= I should study more too.
We could see the mountains.	So could we.	= We could see them too.
My brother had eaten too much.	So had I.	= I had eaten too much too.

Sometimes you can use So + Auxiliary + Subject as a continuation of the first part of the sentence.

• John can sing well and so can his brother.
  (= John can sing will and his brother can sing well too)

NEITHER

Neither is used to show agreement with negative statements.

Neither + Auxiliary + Subject (pronoun)

The Auxiliary needs to agree with the verb tense in the original statement.

It is similar to using either at the end of a sentence, although Neither is more commonly used, especially in spoken English.

A: I don't understand Spanish.
B: Neither do I. (= I don't understand Spanish either.)

A: I cannot swim.
B: Neither can I. (= I can't swim either.)

Sometimes people respond Me Neither instead of Neither + Auxiliary + Subject though this is very informal spoken English.

Person A	Person B
I am not hungry.	Neither am I.	= I'm not hungry either.
I'm not going to quit.	Neither am I.	= I'm not going to quit either.
They don't speak French.	Neither do I.	= I don't speak French either.
Stephanie doesn't eat meat.	Neither does Mary.	= Mary doesn't eat meat either.
Mary didn't go to the party.	Neither did I.	= I didn't go either.
I wouldn't like to do his job.	Neither would I.	= I wouldn't like to do it either.
He won't stop talking.	Neither will you.	= You won't stop either.
You haven't finished your meal.	Neither have you.	= You haven't finished either.
I can't reach the top shelf.	Neither can I.	= I can't reach it either.
You shouldn't talk in the movie.	Neither should you.	= You shouldn't talk either.
We couldn't hear him.	Neither could we.	= We couldn't hear him either.
I hadn't seen her before.	Neither had I.	= I hadn't seen her before either.

Exercise 1: So - Neither - Either

Exercise 2: So-Too-Either-Neither

Subject and object pronouns

Personal pronouns have subject and object forms. The subject forms are: I, we, he, she, it, you and they.

The object forms are: me, us, him, her, it, you and them.

Subject forms (nominative case) are used when the pronoun is the subject of the verb.

Object forms (objective case) are used when the pronoun is the object of the verb.

Note that the pronouns it and you have the same form in the nominative and the objective case.

Exercise 1: Complete the following sentences using an appropriate pronoun.

Exercise 2: SUBJECT AND OBJECT PRONOUNS

Exercise 3: Object pronouns 

Past of be

To Be - Past Tense

The past tense of To Be in English has two forms: WAS and WERE

To Be - Affirmative

Subject	To Be	Examples
I	was	I was tired this morning.
You	were	You were very good.
He	was	He was the best in his class.
She	was	She was late for work.
It	was	It was a sunny day.
We	were	We were at home.
You	were	You were on holiday.
They	were	They were happy with their test results.

To Be - Negative Sentences

The negative of To Be can be made by adding not after the verb (was or were).

Subject	To Be	Examples
I	was not	I was not tired this morning.
You	were not	You were not crazy.
He	was not	He was not married.
She	was not	She was not famous.
It	was not	It was not hot yesterday.
We	were not	We were not invited.
You	were not	You were not at the party.
They	were not	They were not friends.

To Be - Negative Contractions

The can make negative contractions of the verb To Be in the Past tense by joining the verb (was or were) and n't(e.g. were not = weren't). We don't make a contraction of the subject and the verb (e.g. I was).

I was not tired this morning.	OR	I wasn't tired this morning.
You were not crazy.	OR	You weren't crazy.
He was not married.	OR	He wasn't married.
She was not famous.	OR	She wasn't famous.
It was not hot yesterday.	OR	It wasn't hot yesterday.
We were not invited.	OR	We weren't invited.
You were not at the party.	OR	You weren't at the party.
They were not friends.	OR	They weren't friends.

To Be - Questions

To create questions with To Be, you put the Verb before the Subject.

Affirmative	You	were	happy.
	Subject	Verb
Question	Were	you	happy?
	Verb	Subject

Affirmative	Question
I was late	Was I late?
You were sick.	Were you sick?
He was surprised.	Was he surprised?
She was from Italy.	Was she from Italy?
It was a big house.	Was it a big house?
We were ready.	Were we ready?
You were early.	Were you early?
They were busy.	Were they busy?

Exercise 1: Was or Were?
Exercise 2: Use was not or were not.
Exercise 3: Was vs Were in Questions